Starting from the very beginning: Unraveling third language (L3) development with longitudinal data from artificial language learning and related epistemology

Abstract

The burgeoning field of third language (L3) acquisition has increasingly focused on intermediate stages of language development, aiming to establish the groundwork for comprehensive models of L3 learning that encompass the entire developmental sequence. This article underscores the importance of a robust epistemological foundation, advocating for incremental knowledge building through longitudinal research. In the study presented here, we use artificial languages to investigate L3 acquisition from initial exposure with complete input control, factoring in individual differences in executive functions and history of bilingual exposure/engagement to assess the role of these variables in shaping learning trajectories and modulating cross-linguistic influence (CLI). This approach not only advances our understanding of L3 development under controlled conditions but also links L3 acquisition research to broader cognitive science inquiries.

Reference

González Alonso, J., Bernabeu, P., Silva, G., DeLuca, V., Poch, C., Ivanova, I., & Rothman, J. (2024). Starting from the very beginning: Unraveling third language (L3) development with longitudinal data from artificial language learning and related epistemology. International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(22). https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2024.2415993

Addendum

Materials

Documentation practices and open-source software (namely, R and OpenSesame) were used to prepare the materials for the current study. In previous similar studies, the materials have not generally been very Findable, Accessible, Interoperable or Reusable (Cross et al., 2021; González Alonso et al., 2020; Mitrofanova et al., 2023; Morgan-Short et al., 2012; Pereira Soares et al., 2022). In contrast, in our current study, the stimuli were prepared in R using a modular framework that consisted of interoperable components (see https://osf.io/974k8). The modularity of this method facilitates the expansion of the materials within the same languages and to other languages. Specifically, the minimal components of each language were contained in a base file in the ‘stimulus_preparation’ folder. Furthermore, for the creation of the final stimuli, several controls were exerted to prevent spurious effects. For instance, gender and number were counterbalanced across experimental conditions, words were rotated across grammatical properties and sessions, and frequency of occurrence was controlled. The final stimuli can be recreated using the script ‘compile_all_stimuli.R’, and the resulting stimuli are saved to the ‘session_materials’ folder. Furthermore, the final stimuli were presented using OpenSesame, which is a free-of-charge software supporting experiments in the social sciences. The implementation of the four lab-based sessions in OpenSesame involved the use of conditions for controlling the engagement of certain items. In conclusion, the materials of the current study are accessible, and the workflow is reproducible. As a result, the final materials are testable, modifiable and expandable, improving long-term efficiency.

The vast majority of the materials used in these studies were created, documented and curated by Pablo Bernabeu, who can be contacted at .

References

Cross, Z. R., Zou-Williams, L., Wilkinson, E. M., Schlesewsky, M., & Bornkessel-Schlesewsky, I. (2021). Mini Pinyin: A modified miniature language for studying language learning and incremental sentence processing. Behavior Research Methods, 53(3), 1218–1239. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01473-6

González Alonso, J., Alemán Bañón, J., DeLuca, V., Miller, D., Pereira Soares, S. M., Puig-Mayenco, E., Slaats, S., & Rothman, J. (2020). Event related potentials at initial exposure in third language acquisition: Implications from an artificial mini-grammar study. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56, 100939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2020.100939

Mitrofanova, N., Leivada, E., & Westergaard, M. (2023). Crosslinguistic influence in L3 acquisition: Evidence from artificial language learning. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 13(5), 717-742. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.22063.mit

Morgan-Short, K., Finger, I., Grey, S., & Ullman, M. T. (2012). Second language processing shows increased native-like neural responses after months of no exposure. PLOS ONE, 7(3), e32974. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032974

Pereira Soares, S. M., Kupisch, T., & Rothman, J. (2022). Testing potential transfer effects in heritage and adult L2 bilinguals acquiring a mini grammar as an additional language: An ERP approach. Brain Sciences, 12(5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050669

Acknowledgements

Below, we gratefully acknowledge some of the invaluable help and advice we received in various areas.

  • My Ngoc Giang Hoang (recruitment of participants and piloting of sessions)

  • Mona Kirkness Fossum (translation of materials)

  • Gaute Berglund, Anders Gabrielsen, Tekabe Legesse Feleke (piloting of sessions)

  • Teodóra Vékony (alternating serial reaction time task)

  • Björn Lundquist (implementation in OpenSesame)

  • Antonio Fábregas, Natalia Mitrofanova, Yulia Rodina, Marit Westergaard (design and translation of materials and recruitment of participants)

  • Merete Anderssen, Fatih Bayram (recruitment of participants)

Lay summary

Do people learn a third language differently from their second one? For those already fluent in two languages, acquiring a third one introduces specific complexities. We are investigating this process using artificial languages, which allow for precise control and observation of the learning experience.

In this study, we developed ‘mini-languages’ that replicate grammatical structures of real languages while minimising the need to learn a new vocabulary. The study, conducted in Norway and Spain, follows participants over time, aiming to understand how previous bilingual experience—especially based on structural similarities between languages—influences the learning of a new language.

By using electroencephalography to monitor brain activity, we will examine which prior language(s) serve as sources of transfer in the learning of the new language. This line of inquiry is guided by previous findings in third language acquisition suggesting that learners might rely on both previous languages, though one may be more—or uniquely—influential at the onset of learning.

The study also examines how core cognitive functions—specifically, working memory, inhibitory control and implicit learning—may affect learning outcomes. Similar to how focusing in a noisy environment requires specific mental skills, third language acquisition may depend on particular cognitive abilities. For instance, participants with strong working memory might have an advantage in recognising patterns or recalling grammatical rules.

By better understanding the processes of third language acquisition, this work could also contribute to broader inquiries in cognitive science regarding how we use existing knowledge to adapt to new tasks.

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